Z

Zen Buddhism

A trend in Buddhism; originated in China in the 6th century; postulated a single essence of Buddha and of all creatures, and the natural way, tao, which supersedes all theoretical methods. Unlike other Buddhistic schools, Zen Buddhism preaches "sudden awakening", satori. The irrationalism and intuitionism of Zen Buddhism has been rousing widespread interest among West European and American philosophers, especially in recent years.

Zeno of Citium (c. 336–264 B.C.)

Founder of the stoic school (see Stoics). Born in Citium on Cyprus, son of a merchant; studied under Crates the Cynic, then under Stilpo and Diodorus of the Megarian school and later under Polemon the Platonian. In Athens about 300 B.C. he founded his own school which was called stoic (from stoa poikile, portico decorated with frescoes).

Only a few fragments of his writings are extant. He divided philosophy into three parts—logic, physics and ethics. He introduced the term "catalepsis" (concept). According to him, the idea (fantasia) is the imprint (tuposis) of things in the mind. He regarded the "captivating image" as the criterion of truth, inasmuch as it is associated with the apprehension of reality.

Zeno of Elea (c. 490–430 B.C.)

Of the Elea school (see Eleatics). Was the first to introduce the form of dialogue; known for his logical paradoxes, which posed in negative form important questions of the dialectical nature of motion. He held that being is non-contradictory, therefore contradictory being is seeming being. His paradoxes amounted to proof that (1) it is logically impossible to conceive the multiplicity of things, (2) the assumption of motion leads to contradiction.

His best known paradoxes against the possibility of motion are "Achilles and the Tortoise" and "the Flying Arrow" (see Aporia). Lenin, pondering over his arguments stressed that Hegel was right in raising objections to them: to move means to be in this place and at the same time not to be in it; it is the unity of the continuity and discontinuity of space and time which makes motion possible.

Zhegalkin, Ivan Ivanovich (1869–1947)

Logician and mathematician, professor at Moscow University; one of the founders of the Soviet school of mathematical logic. In 1927–28, he devised a logic of propositions in the form of an arithmetic of two figures—nought ("even") and one ("uneven"), thus achieving great simplicity in the solution of logical problems. Unlike the usual logical constructions, his logic employs no conjunctions, only disjunctions being used in the same way as odd and even numbers in arithmetic.

Zoroastrianism

A dualistic ancient Iranian religion. Its creation is credited to the mythical prophet Zarathustra (Zoroaster in Greek). Zoroastrianism had been fully shaped by the 7th century B.C. The main thing in Zoroastrianism is the doctrine of the constant struggle in the world between two opposite elements: good, personified by the god of lightness Ahuro Mazdao (Ormazd), and evil, personified by the god of darkness Angro Mainyush (Ahriman).

Its eschatological ideas (see Eschatology) on the end of the world, retribution in another world, judgement, resurrection of the dead and a future saviour born of a virgin exerted great influence on Judaism and Christianity. Exists now in the form of Parsiism in India, which has preserved the old dualistic ideas but developed the concept of a single Almighty God.